The short version of intranasal route fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
Reviewed 2025-12-24. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its design combines the ACTH(4-7) core fragment with a C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension, a modification intended to improve stability and prolong activity. The molecule is hydrophilic, carries no lipid chains or glycosylation, and has a theoretical mass just over 810 daltons in its free form. All seven residues are proteinogenic amino acids, so no non-natural building blocks appear in the backbone. A free N-terminal methionine and C-terminal proline define the unmodified parent peptide.
The compound was developed during the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow as part of research on fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Early work examined short ACTH-derived sequences that retained neurotrophic effects while lacking the endocrine activity of the full hormone. Semax entered clinical use in Russia during the 1990s, where it received registration for several neurological indications. Outside that region it remained primarily a laboratory research material rather than an approved therapeutic. English-language literature on it grew more slowly and frequently cited the original Russian studies.
The proposed mechanism centres on neurotrophic signalling rather than direct receptor activation. Semax is reported to increase expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in several brain regions, and to shift the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Interaction with melanocortin receptors has been suggested because of the parent ACTH fragment. Many of these findings come from rodent studies, and the extent to which they translate to human physiology remains an open question.
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was derived from the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone that lacks the hormonal activity associated with the full-length peptide. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow developed the compound during the 1980s. It has been registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia and several neighbouring countries, where it is supplied as a nasal solution, and it is also sold internationally as a research chemical.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic heptapeptide | ACTH(4-7) analogue |
| Sequence | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro | Free N terminus, unmodified side chains |
| Molecular weight | 813.9 Da | Free base; salt forms differ |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilised solid |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Hydrophilic; polar solvents preferred |
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
Laboratory work points toward modulation of neurotrophic signaling, particularly expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal tissue. Studies also describe effects on monoamine turnover, inflammatory mediators, and oxidative markers. These observations come mainly from animal models and cultured cells, so the causal chain in humans is not firmly established. Whether the reported molecular changes translate into measurable clinical benefit is an open question. Reviews generally present the mechanism as plausible rather than demonstrated.
Clinical evidence consists largely of small trials with modest sample sizes, often without independent replication. Reported endpoints include cognitive scores, recovery after stroke, and visual function, but study designs vary widely and few trials meet contemporary reporting standards. Systematic reviewers have noted a high risk of bias in several of these reports. No large multicenter trial conducted outside Russia has been published. The compound is therefore best described as investigational in most jurisdictions, with its clinical role still unresolved.
Development is attributed to researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the early 1980s, building on earlier Soviet work with ACTH fragments. Russian regulatory approval followed for intranasal use, and the compound has remained commercially available there for decades. Most published human data originate from Russian and, later, some Eastern European clinical reports, which are not always accessible in English translation. Outside that region the material is generally handled as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine.
Regulatory status differs sharply between jurisdictions. In Russia the peptide is registered as a prescription nasal preparation, while agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration have not approved it for any indication. Products sold elsewhere are typically labeled for laboratory research only, and such labels shift responsibility for safe handling to the purchaser. Because the same name covers pharmaceutical-grade nasal drops and bulk research powder, identity and purity documentation becomes the main practical concern when comparing sources.
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide whose sequence extends the ACTH(4-10) fragment with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline tripeptide. The commonly cited sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, giving a molecular formula near C37H51N9O10S and a molecular weight close to 813.9 g/mol. It belongs to the broader class of synthetic ACTH fragments studied for central nervous system effects rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. In practice the material appears as a lyophilized white powder for laboratory work or as a dilute saline solution in clinical settings.
Clinical reports describe use in ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack, optic nerve conditions, and cognitive complaints, but most of these studies are small and were conducted in a single region. Systematic reviews have generally described the evidence base as limited in size and variable in methodological quality. Randomised controlled data suitable for international regulatory assessment are scarce. As a result, major treatment guidelines outside Russia do not include the peptide, and interest in it remains largely research-driven rather than routine clinical.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It is described in the literature as an analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short N-terminal portion of adrenocorticotropic hormone that retains some neurotropic activity without the full hormonal effects of the parent peptide. The molecule carries a methionine residue at the N-terminus and two proline residues near the C-terminus, features that shape both its interactions with receptor systems and its chemical stability. The free peptide corresponds to the formula C37H51N9O10S and a molecular mass near 813.9 Da.
In 2013, Xi announced the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a global infrastructure and economic development project. Encompassing much of Africa and Eurasia, the BRI became central to Chinese foreign policy and is the largest infrastructure investment by a great power since the Marshall Plan. In 2015, Xi announced the founding of the Asia Infrastructure Investment Bank, seen as a competitor to other multilateral banks such as the World Bank and the Asia Development Bank. Xi has unveiled the Global Development Initiative (GDI), the Global Security Initiative (GSI), the Global Civilisation Initiative (GCI), and the Global Governance Initiative (GGI) in 2021, 2022, 2023 and 2025 respectively, aiming to increase China's influence in the international order. Under Xi, China has, along with Russia, also focused on increasing relations with the Global South in order to blunt the effect of international sanctions.
=== 1960–1995 === Originally founded as Metropolitan Pathology Laboratory, Inc. in 1967 by Paul A. Brown, MD, the clinical laboratory underwent a variety of name changes. In 1969, the company's name changed to MetPath, Inc. with headquarters in Teaneck, New Jersey. By 1982, MetPath was acquired by what was then known as Corning Glass Works and was subsequently renamed Corning Clinical Laboratories.
Prions are proteins of particular amino acid sequences in particular conformations. They propagate themselves in host cells by making conformational changes in other molecules of protein with the same amino acid sequence, but with a different conformation that is functionally important or detrimental to the organism. Once the protein has been transconformed to the prion folding, it changes function. In turn, it can convey information into new cells and reconfigure more functional molecules of that sequence into the alternate prion form. In some types of prion in fungi, this change is continuous and direct; the information flow is Protein → Protein. Some scientists such as Alain E. Bussard and Eugene Koonin have argued that prion-mediated inheritance violates the central dogma of molecular biology. However, Rosalind Ridley in Molecular Pathology of the Prions (2001) has written that "The prion hypothesis is not heretical to the central dogma of molecular biology—that the information necessary to manufacture proteins is encoded in the nucleotide sequence of nucleic acid—because it does not claim that proteins replicate. Rather, it claims that there is a source of information within protein molecules that contributes to their biological function, and that this information can be passed on to other molecules."
In 2001, a more complete juvenile tyrannosaur (nicknamed "Jane", accession number BMRP 2002.4.1), suggested to belong to the same species as the original Nanotyrannus specimen, was uncovered. This discovery prompted a conference on tyrannosaurs focused on the issues of the validity of Nanotyrannus, held at the Burpee Museum of Natural History in 2005. Several paleontologists who had previously published opinions that N. lancensis was a valid species, including Currie and Williams, saw the discovery of "Jane" as a confirmation that Nanotyrannus was, in fact, a juvenile T. rex. Peter Larson continued to support the hypothesis that Nanotyrannus lancensis was a separate but closely related species, and also argued that Stygivenator (LACM 28471), which is generally considered to be a juvenile of Tyrannosaurus rex, could be a younger specimen of Nanotyrannus. In 2011, news reports about a 2006 discovery of a new, virtually complete theropod specimen found alongside a ceratopsid were made. The specimens were studied by Robert Bakker and Peter Larson on-site, who identified the ceratopsian as Triceratops and the theropod as Nanotyrannus. It was impossible to determine whether the theropod specimen, nicknamed "Bloody Mary", was distinct from T. rex, as the specimen remained in private hands until 2020, when the ownership of the specimen was decided by the Montana Supreme Court to be given to the landowners Mary Anne and Lige Murray. The fossil was acquired by the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences in 2020.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Leonian Gyoku Rou (レオン星人ギョク・ロウ, Reon Seijin Gyoku Rō): Ban's leonine predecessor, from Planet Leon, who was meant to become Deka Red on Earth, but was badly injured while protecting Jasmine and Hoji from an Alienizer called Terry X, which seemingly forced Rou to retire. In reality, he was tasked by Numa-O to go underground and prepare an elite team called the Fire Squad (ファイヤースクワッド, Faiyā Sukuwaddo). In the present, after being forced out of hiding when Terry X resurfaces, Rou recruits Ban in recognition of his fiery passion and drive for crime-fighting. Gyoku Rou is voiced by Daisuke Namikawa (浪川 大輔, Namikawa Daisuke).
=== Marketing === Liraglutide was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2014, and by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) in 2015, for adults with a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or greater (obesity) or a BMI of 27 or greater (overweight) who have at least one weight-related condition. Liraglutide was approved by the FDA in 2019, for treatment of children aged ten years of age or older with type 2 diabetes, making it the first non-insulin drug approved to treat type 2 diabetes in children since metformin was approved in 2000. Novo Nordisk made deals with generic manufacturers to enter the United States market in 2024. The FDA approved the first generic liraglutide in December 2024, and granted the approval to Hikma Pharmaceuticals USA
RSeH + H2O2 → RSeOH + H2O RSeOH + GSH → GS-SeR + H2O GS-SeR + GSH → GS-SG + RSeH In the absence of thiols, selenols tend to overoxidize to produce seleninic acids. Many organoselenium compounds (selenenamides, diaryl diselenides) contain "interesting" biological activities. Their activity is attributed to their mimicry of glutathione peroxidase activity. They reduce hydroperoxides that otherwise convert to toxic byproducts and/or reactive oxygen species that can cause further damage to the cell.
Formation of secondary structures is a strong indication of increased stability within the protein, and only one combination of secondary structures assumed by the polypeptide backbone will have the lowest energy and therefore be present in the native state of the protein. Among the first structures to form once the polypeptide begins to fold are alpha helices and beta turns, where alpha helices can form in as little as 100 nanoseconds and beta turns in 1 microsecond. There exists a saddle point in the energy funnel landscape where the transition state for a particular protein is found. The transition state in the energy funnel diagram is the conformation that must be assumed by every molecule of that protein if the protein wishes to finally assume the native structure. No protein may assume the native structure without first passing through the transition state. The transition state can be referred to as a variant or premature form of the native state rather than just another intermediary step. The folding of the transition state is shown to be rate-determining, and even though it exists in a higher energy state than the native fold, it greatly resembles the native structure. Within the transition state, there exists a nucleus around which the protein is able to fold, formed by a process referred to as "nucleation condensation" where the structure begins to collapse onto the nucleus.
=== Overdose === Overdose most often causes slow heart rate. Respiratory depression, low blood pressure, constricted pupils, hypothermia, brief episodes of high blood pressure, drowsiness, headaches and vomiting may also occur. In serious cases some of these effects may result in circulatory shock. Most often overdoses occur in children who have ingested the drug. There is no antidote for tetryzoline or other similar imidazoline analogue poisoning, but the symptoms can be alleviated. With treatment, death is rare.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Kosmotropes and chaotropes == Highly charged ions interact strongly with water, breaking hydrogen bonds and inducing electrostatic structuring of nearby water, and are thus called "structure-makers" or "kosmotropes". Conversely, weak ions can disrupt the structure of water, and are thus called "structure-breakers" or "chaotropes". The order of the tendency of ions to make or break water structure is the basis of the Hofmeister series. Hofmeister discovered a series of salts that have consistent effects on the solubility of proteins and, as it was discovered later, on the stability of their secondary and tertiary structures. Anions appear to have a larger effect than cations, and are usually ordered as follows:
=== Additional surface methods === The SELDI process is a combination of surface-enhanced neat desorption (SEND),surface-enhanced affinity-capture (SEAC), and surface-enhanced photolabile attachment and release (SEPAR) mass spectrometry. With SEND, analytes can be desorbed and ionized without adding a matrix; the matrix is incorporated into the sample surface. In SEAC, the sample surface is modified to bind the analyte of interest for analysis with laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (LDI-MS). SEPAR is a combination of SEND and SEAC; the modified sample surface also acts as an energy absorbing matrix for ionization.
=== 2015 attack on security forces === On 7 April 2015, the CJNG ambushed and killed 15 Mexican police officers and seriously injured five others. The cartel carried out the attack as the police officers were driving along a mountain road in Jalisco, which was blocked by the CJNG with burning vehicles. Once the convoy of police officers was stopped in a vulnerable position, gunmen from the CJNG opened fire on them with sophisticated weaponry including machine guns and grenade launchers.
n C4H4NH + 2 FeCl3 → (C4H2NH)n + 2 FeCl2 + 2 HCl Upon further oxidation, these polymers become conductive, forming p-doped conducting polymers. These typically owe their conductivity to the transport of (positive) polarons, radical cation defects with resonance structures where the radical and cation are on separate atoms, associated with a localized change in bond-length alternation within the conjugated system, as well as bipolarons, classically considered to be non-radical dications in equilibrium with polarons.
But when he finally presented his results he reported an excess heat of only one degree Celsius, a result that could be explained by chemical differences between heavy and light water in the presence of lithium. He had not tried to measure any radiation and his research was derided by scientists who saw it later. For the next six weeks, competing claims, counterclaims, and suggested explanations kept what was referred to as "cold fusion" or "fusion confusion" in the news. In April 1989, Fleischmann and Pons published a "preliminary note" in the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. This paper notably showed a gamma peak without its corresponding Compton edge, which indicated they had made a mistake in claiming evidence of fusion byproducts. Fleischmann and Pons replied to this critique, but the only thing left clear was that no gamma ray had been registered and that Fleischmann refused to recognize any mistakes in the data. A much longer paper published a year later went into details of calorimetry but did not include any nuclear measurements. Nevertheless, Fleischmann and Pons and a number of other researchers who found positive results remained convinced of their findings. The University of Utah asked Congress to provide $25 million to pursue the research, and Pons was scheduled to meet with representatives of President Bush in early May. On 30 April 1989, cold fusion was declared dead by The New York Times. The Times called it a circus the same day, and the Boston Herald attacked cold fusion the following day.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide built from the ACTH(4-7) sequence plus a Pro-Gly-Pro tail. It belongs to the family of short ACTH fragments studied for nervous-system effects. Its backbone contains only standard amino acids.
It contains the 4-7 fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone extended at the C terminus. That truncation removes the region associated with steroidogenic activity. The design intent was to keep neurotrophic properties while avoiding full hormonal effects.
No natural source of the intact heptapeptide is known. It is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis. Some related ACTH fragments arise as hormone processing products, but the Pro-Gly-Pro extension is a designed addition rather than a natural sequence.
Semax is based on the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a seven-amino-acid segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. The synthetic peptide retains the core sequence while removing regions associated with endocrine activity. This modification is intended to isolate effects on the nervous system.