intranasal delivery raises a handful of sensible questions. This page answers them in order, starting with the fundamentals and moving to applications.
Reviewed 2026-05-31. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
常规纯度与身份确认依赖反相高效液相色谱，并辅以质谱测定分子量。氨基酸组成分析可用于验证序列构成，肽图分析则能进一步定位修饰或降解产物。杂质谱通常关注缺失序列肽、截短片段和氧化产物。不同方法的检出限并不相同，因此各实验室报告的纯度数值不宜直接横向比较。
多数实验室与市售的 Semax 以冻干粉形式提供。冻干粉通常建议保存在 -20 °C 或更低温度下，同时避免光照与反复升温。短期运输有时采用冷藏条件，但长期保存仍以冷冻为主。分包操作应尽量减少开盖次数，以降低吸湿和微生物污染的风险。开封后若未一次用完，建议在干燥环境中密封并尽快放回低温储存。
溶液状态的稳定性明显低于冻干粉。肽类在水溶液中可能经历水解、氧化与聚集，其中甲硫氨酸和天冬酰胺等残基常是敏感位点。Semax 含有甲硫氨酸，因此氧化风险相对突出。工作液一般主张现配现用，或冷藏并在数日内用尽。缓冲液种类、pH 和离子强度都会影响降解速率，而关于最佳条件的公开数据并不统一。
The C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension is not incidental. Proline-rich tails are known to resist several common peptidases, and the published literature attributes the longer half-life of Semax, relative to unmodified ACTH fragments, to this feature. The modification also removes the melanocyte-stimulating and corticosteroidogenic activity that characterizes longer ACTH-derived sequences. Because the molecule is small and hydrophilic, it is typically formulated as an aqueous solution for intranasal or parenteral delivery. Acetylation or amidation at the termini appears in closely related research peptides and shifts the mass by a fixed increment.
Reported pharmacological work centers on neurotrophic signaling, including changes in BDNF and NGF expression in hippocampal tissue in animal models. Human data come largely from studies conducted in Russia, and how well those results generalize to other populations remains an open question. Regulatory status differs sharply by jurisdiction: Semax is a registered prescription medicine in Russia, while it holds no approved marketing status in the United States or the European Union. Outside such jurisdictions it is generally handled as a research chemical, which affects both documentation and quality expectations.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was developed as a fragment analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, modeled specifically on the ACTH(4-10) region. The first four residues reproduce that fragment, while a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide is appended at the C-terminus. Work on the compound originated in Russia, where it entered clinical use as an intranasal preparation. Its sequence places it among short regulatory peptides studied for effects on the central nervous system rather than on the adrenal axis.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 常见于冻干制剂 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 在极性溶剂中一般也可溶 |
| 建议储存温度 | -20 °C | 冻干粉，避光密封 |
| 常见分析手段 | 反相高效液相色谱 | 常与质谱联用 |
| 主要降解路径 | 水解与氧化 | 溶液状态更显著 |
Identity and purity of semax are established with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to ultraviolet detection, usually at 214 nanometres. Mass spectrometry, most often electrospray ionisation in positive mode, confirms the molecular mass and reveals truncated sequences. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping after enzymatic digestion provide additional structural confirmation. Laboratories typically report purity as the percentage area of the main peak, a figure that does not capture isomeric or oxidised variants unless the method resolves them.
The peptide is prone to several degradation pathways. Oxidation of the methionine residue produces a sulfoxide that elutes close to the parent peak in many chromatographic systems. Hydrolysis of peptide bonds and deamidation of susceptible residues in related sequences also reduce purity over time. Lyophilised material kept dry at minus twenty degrees Celsius and shielded from light is the most stable form commonly described in laboratory practice.
The compound was developed during the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow as part of research on fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Early work examined short ACTH-derived sequences that retained neurotrophic effects while lacking the endocrine activity of the full hormone. Semax entered clinical use in Russia during the 1990s, where it received registration for several neurological indications. Outside that region it remained primarily a laboratory research material rather than an approved therapeutic. English-language literature on it grew more slowly and frequently cited the original Russian studies.
Terminology around the compound varies by source. It appears in catalogues and papers as Semax, as the heptapeptide ACTH(4-7)-Pro-Gly-Pro, and under various alphanumeric laboratory codes used by individual suppliers. These names refer to the same sequence but may imply different salt forms, purity grades, or counter-ions. Peptide databases usually list the free base mass, while product descriptions sometimes report acetate or trifluoroacetate salts with a different formula weight. Because naming conventions for research peptides are not standardised across vendors, checking the declared sequence and measured mass is more reliable than relying on a trade name alone.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its design combines the ACTH(4-7) core fragment with a C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension, a modification intended to improve stability and prolong activity. The molecule is hydrophilic, carries no lipid chains or glycosylation, and has a theoretical mass just over 810 daltons in its free form. All seven residues are proteinogenic amino acids, so no non-natural building blocks appear in the backbone. A free N-terminal methionine and C-terminal proline define the unmodified parent peptide.
Pharmacokinetic accounts emphasize rapid breakdown. After intravenous dosing the intact peptide disappears from blood within minutes, and nasal delivery produces low but measurable concentrations. Metabolites rather than the parent molecule may account for part of the observed activity, although the relative contribution is unresolved. Dosing in the literature varies widely and no optimal schedule has been agreed. These gaps are regularly cited as a reason the findings have not produced broad clinical adoption beyond the original research setting.
Proposed mechanisms center on neurotrophic signaling rather than on classical melanocortin receptor activation. Rodent experiments have reported shifts in the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor after administration, together with changes in the associated receptor systems. Several authors argue that the peptide acts largely through its degradation products and their interaction with peptidergic pathways, but this remains a hypothesis rather than a settled finding. No single molecular target has been identified in a way that the field broadly accepts.
Published research covers ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, cognitive impairment, optic nerve conditions and attention-related measures. Much of the human evidence comes from small trials conducted in one country, which limits how far the results generalize. Animal models supply the larger share of the data, and effects seen in rodents do not transfer automatically to people. Reviews have noted that methodological reporting is often incomplete, making it difficult to pool results or compare treatment schedules across studies.
Clinical reports describe use in ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack, optic nerve conditions, and cognitive complaints, but most of these studies are small and were conducted in a single region. Systematic reviews have generally described the evidence base as limited in size and variable in methodological quality. Randomised controlled data suitable for international regulatory assessment are scarce. As a result, major treatment guidelines outside Russia do not include the peptide, and interest in it remains largely research-driven rather than routine clinical.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It is described in the literature as an analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short N-terminal portion of adrenocorticotropic hormone that retains some neurotropic activity without the full hormonal effects of the parent peptide. The molecule carries a methionine residue at the N-terminus and two proline residues near the C-terminus, features that shape both its interactions with receptor systems and its chemical stability. The free peptide corresponds to the formula C37H51N9O10S and a molecular mass near 813.9 Da.
== Function == As its name suggests, NGF is involved primarily in the growth, as well as the maintenance, proliferation, and survival of nerve cells (neurons) and is critical for the survival and maintenance of sympathetic and sensory neurons as they undergo apoptosis in its absence. However, several recent studies suggest that NGF is also involved in pathways besides those regulating the life cycle of neurons.
=== Routine procedural sedation === Propofol is safe and effective for gastrointestinal endoscopy procedures (colonoscopies, etc.). Its use in these settings results in a faster recovery compared to midazolam. It can also be combined with opioids or benzodiazepines. Because of its rapid induction and recovery time, propofol is also widely used for sedation of infants and children undergoing MRI procedures. It is also often used in combination with ketamine with minimal side effects.
The P/E-site holds the TRNA with the growing polypeptide chain. When an aminoacyl-TRNA initially binds to its corresponding codon on the mRNA, it is in the A site. Then, a peptide bond forms between the amino acid of the TRNA in the A site and the amino acid of the charged TRNA in the P/E site. The growing polypeptide chain is transferred to the TRNA in the A site. Translocation occurs, moving the TRNA to the P/E site, now without an amino acid; the TRNA that was in the A site, now charged with the polypeptide chain, is moved to the P/E site and the uncharged TRNA leaves, and another aminoacyl-TRNA enters the A site to repeat the process. After the new amino acid is added to the chain, and after the TRNA is released out of the ribosome and into the cytosol, the energy provided by the hydrolysis of a GTP bound to the translocase EEF2 moves the ribosome down one codon towards the 3' end. The energy required for translation of proteins is significant. For a protein containing n amino acids, the number of high-energy phosphate bonds required to translate it is 4n-1. The rate of translation varies; it is significantly higher in prokaryotic cells (up to 17–21 amino acid residues per second) than in eukaryotic cells (up to 6–9 amino acid residues per second).
=== Intellectual property === Northwestern University in the US holds the patent on pregabalin, exclusively licensed to Pfizer. That patent, along with others, was challenged by generic manufacturers and was upheld in 2014, giving Pfizer exclusivity for Lyrica in the US until 2018. Pfizer's main patent for Lyrica, for seizure disorders, in the UK expired in 2013. In November 2018, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom ruled that Pfizer's second patent on the drug, for the treatment of pain, was invalid because there was a lack of evidence for the conditions it covered—central and peripheral neuropathic pain. From October 2015, GPs were forced to change people from generic pregabalin to branded until the second patent ran out in July 2017. This cost the NHS £502 million.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Diagnosis == Heart disease is often undiagnosed until a serious problem occurs, such as heart attack or cardiac arrest. Regular checkups can lead to an early diagnosis and preventative treatment. Screening tests and risk assessments should begin around age 20 if one does not have any risk factors. Screenings should begin in childhood if one has risk factors such as obesity, sedentary lifestyle, or a family history of heart conditions. Healthcare providers will run blood tests to check for cholesterol, triglycerides, lipoproteins, sugar, or proteins that are a sign of inflammation.
=== Reactive oxygen species generation === Alloxan (C4H2N2O4) readily undergoes redox cycling with its one-electron (C4H3N2O4• semiquinone) and two-electron (dialuric acid, C4H4N2O4) reduction products. In the presence of intracellular reductants such as glutathione (or other thiols), this leads to the generation of toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) via the interaction of alloxan reduction products with molecular oxygen and related species:
After authorizing the Pentagon to use military force against Latin American drug cartels, the Trump administration doubled the reward for the capture of Maduro to US$50 million. At the time, an anonymous US official told Reuters that military action against those groups did not seem imminent; another official told Reuters that powers granted in the order included allowing the Navy to carry out sea operations including drug interdiction and targeted military raids. In August 2025, the US began deploying warships and personnel to the Caribbean, citing the need to combat drug cartels, although most of the fentanyl entering the US is over land via Mexico. On 20 August, Trump ordered three Navy warships to the coast of South America. As of 29 August, seven US warships, along with one nuclear-powered fast attack submarine, were in and around the Southern Caribbean, bringing along more than 4,500 sailors and marines. The Central Intelligence Agency joined the military campaign after confirming that it would play a significant role in combating drug cartels, just as it is considering using lethal force against these criminal organizations. In response to this tension in United States–Venezuela relations, Venezuela said it would mobilize more than four million soldiers in the Bolivarian Militia. On 26 August, Defense Minister Vladimir Padrino López announced a naval deployment around Venezuela's main oil hub. Maduro said he "would constitutionally declare a republic in arms" if the country were attacked by the US forces deployed in the Caribbean.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Types of sutures === Serrate sutures – similar to a denticulate suture but the interlocking regions are serrated rather than square. Eg: Coronal suture, sagittal Sutures. Plane sutures – edges of the bones are flush with each other as in a normal butt joint. Eg: Internasal suture. Limbous sutures – edges are bevelled so the plane of the suture is sloping as in a mitre joint. Eg: Temporo-parietal suture. Schindylesis – formed by two bones fitting into each other similar to a bridle joint. Eg: Palatomaxillary suture. Denticulate sutures – the edges slot into each other as in a finger joint. Eg: Lambdoid suture.
== Export == GS-HNE is a potent inhibitor of the activity of glutathione S-transferase, and therefore must be shuttled out of the cell to allow conjugation to occur at a physiological rate. Ral-interacting GTPase activating protein (RLIP76, also known as Ral-binding protein 1), is a membrane-bound protein which has high activity towards the transport of GS-HNE from the cytoplasm to the extracellular space. This protein accounts for approximately 70% of such transport in human cell lines, while the remainder appears to be accounted for by Multidrug Resistance Protein 1 (MRP1).
==== Jasmine ==== Marika Reimon (礼紋 茉莉花, Reimon Marika), also known as "Jasmine" (ジャスミン, Jasumin), is a calm and collected psychic, or "ESPer", who serves as Deka Yellow (デカイエロー, Deka Ierō). In the past, she suffered from depression over her then-inability to control her abilities and contemplated suicide by allowing an Alienizer to kill her. However, she was rescued and recruited by Doggie Kruger. In the present, she is good friends with her teammate Umeko, with whom she forms a tag-team called the Twin Cam Angels (ツインカム・エンジェル, Tsuin Kamu Enjeru). As of the direct-to-video anniversary special Tokusou Sentai Dekaranger: 10 Years After, Jasmine is married and has a son named Taiga (大我). Jasmine's ESPer abilities allow her to pick up on sensory impressions of others by handling an object connected to them or visiting a location her target has been to, though overuse of her powers exhausts her. To control her powers, she wears gloves. Furthermore, as a result of breast-feeding her son during the direct-to-video anniversary special Tokusou Sentai Dekaranger: 10 Years After, Jasmine temporarily gained the ability to teleport herself to any part of the universe, which she loses as of the direct-to-video anniversary special Tokusou Sentai Dekaranger 20th: Fireball Booster. In the crossover film Mahō Sentai Magiranger vs. Dekaranger, she displays the ability to break the fourth wall.
He also coined technical terms such as “isodynamics,” “isoclines,” and “magnetic storm,” and was the first to describe the magnetic equator. Humboldt’s mapping and cartographic achievements set new standards for accuracy and integration. In Recueil d’observations astronomiques, d’opérations trigonométriques et de mesures barométriques, he presented maps that combined astronomical observations for latitude and longitude, triangulation, and barometric measurements of elevation. His maps of the Orinoco River, the Andes, the Valley of Mexico, and other regions provided unprecedented detail and clarity. In Mexico, he oversaw the production of a comprehensive map that synthesized political, economic, ethnographic, and physical information, setting a new standard for thematic maps. Humboldt’s Essai politique sur le royaume de la Nouvelle-Espagne (Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain) and Essai politique sur l’île de Cuba (Political Essay on the Island of Cuba) exemplify his approach to regional geography. These works combined exhaustive statistical data with economic, social, and physical analysis, offering the first modern regional studies of Mexico and Cuba. In Mexico, Humboldt’s assessments of mining resources, particularly silver, drew international attention and had significant economic repercussions. His Cuban essay was notable for its forceful condemnation of slavery. In both cases, Humboldt’s integration of field observations, statistical analysis, and critical commentary created a template for future regional and economic geography.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
一般不建议常温长期保存。多数说明指向 -20 °C 冷冻避光。常温运输通常被视为短期可接受，但会加快降解风险。
公开资料对此没有统一答案。普遍建议现配现用，或冷藏并在数日内用完。含甲硫氨酸的序列更易氧化，放置时间越长风险越高。
反相高效液相色谱是最常用的手段，配合质谱确认分子量。氨基酸组成分析和肽图分析可补充序列层面的验证。
The sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, a seven-residue peptide. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, and Pro-Gly-Pro is added at the C-terminus. N-acetylated versions also appear in the literature and differ in mass.