This is a working overview of Semax, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
Reviewed 2025-08-19. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Routine characterization relies on reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography to establish purity and on mass spectrometry to confirm molecular identity. Electrospray ionization and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization are both used for mass verification. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping can detect sequence errors. Common impurities include truncated sequences, methionine sulfoxide formed by oxidation, and deamidated products. Chromatograms are usually recorded near 214 nm, where the peptide backbone absorbs, and purity is reported as the percentage area of the principal peak.
Verification of a supplied batch generally combines a certificate of analysis with independent testing, because certificates are self-reported documents. A typical package includes a chromatographic trace, a mass spectrum, and a stated water or counter-ion content. Batch-to-batch consistency matters more than a single purity figure when results are compared across experiments. No single mandatory standard governs research-grade peptide release, so laboratories are expected to define their own acceptance criteria. Residual trifluoroacetate from purification is a frequently overlooked counter-ion.
Terminology around the compound varies by source. It appears in catalogues and papers as Semax, as the heptapeptide ACTH(4-7)-Pro-Gly-Pro, and under various alphanumeric laboratory codes used by individual suppliers. These names refer to the same sequence but may imply different salt forms, purity grades, or counter-ions. Peptide databases usually list the free base mass, while product descriptions sometimes report acetate or trifluoroacetate salts with a different formula weight. Because naming conventions for research peptides are not standardised across vendors, checking the declared sequence and measured mass is more reliable than relying on a trade name alone.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its design combines the ACTH(4-7) core fragment with a C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension, a modification intended to improve stability and prolong activity. The molecule is hydrophilic, carries no lipid chains or glycosylation, and has a theoretical mass just over 810 daltons in its free form. All seven residues are proteinogenic amino acids, so no non-natural building blocks appear in the backbone. A free N-terminal methionine and C-terminal proline define the unmodified parent peptide.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Typical purity | 95% or higher | By reversed-phase HPLC area |
| Identity method | Electrospray mass spectrometry | Confirms molecular mass |
| Purity method | Reversed-phase HPLC | Detection near 214 nm |
| Primary degradation | Methionine oxidation | Sulfoxide product, +16 Da |
| Solution storage | 2-8 °C, short term | Aliquot to avoid freeze-thaw |
Circulation time for the peptide is short because peptidases cleave it readily. The Pro-Gly-Pro tail is thought to slow breakdown compared with the bare ACTH fragment, but the gain appears modest. Absorption after intranasal dosing is limited, and only a fraction of a dose is expected to reach the central nervous system. Laboratory concentrations therefore sit well above levels achieved systemically, a gap that complicates translation from bench findings to clinical claims.
The mechanisms attributed to semax are inferred from animal and cell studies rather than traced to one confirmed target. The most frequently cited pathway involves increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal and cortical tissue. Some work points to engagement of melanocortin receptors, particularly MC4, which the parent ACTH fragment can activate. Effects on dopaminergic and serotonergic signalling have also been reported. No single account explains all observed results, and the relative weight of each pathway remains unsettled.
The proposed mechanism centres on neurotrophic signalling rather than direct receptor activation. Semax is reported to increase expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in several brain regions, and to shift the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Interaction with melanocortin receptors has been suggested because of the parent ACTH fragment. Many of these findings come from rodent studies, and the extent to which they translate to human physiology remains an open question.
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was derived from the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone that lacks the hormonal activity associated with the full-length peptide. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow developed the compound during the 1980s. It has been registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia and several neighbouring countries, where it is supplied as a nasal solution, and it is also sold internationally as a research chemical.
从分子层面看，Semax 是线性七肽，没有二硫键、糖基或脂链修饰，N 端为游离氨基，C 端为游离羧基。分子含组氨酸与谷氨酸侧链，因此在水和甲醇等极性溶剂中溶解良好，在非极性溶剂中溶解有限。计算分子量约为 814 Da，与其质子化离子的质荷比吻合，可用于质谱确认。
稳定性主要由水解与氧化两条路径支配。肽键在中性或弱酸性条件下相对稳定，遇到强碱或长时间高温则明显断裂；甲硫氨酸侧链容易被氧化成亚砜，使主峰前移并拉低实际含量。金属离子、光照和反复冻融会进一步促进降解或聚集。冻干粉在低温避光条件下可存放较长时间，配制后的水溶液通常需要冷藏并尽快用完。
=== Australia === From 2023, Juniper was cited in multiple reports examining the regulation of telehealth-based weight-loss services in Australia. The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners (RACGP) and medical regulators raised concerns about prescribing models relying on asynchronous or questionnaire-based assessments for injectable weight-loss medications. The TGA assessed whether online advertising by Juniper (and its competitors) could indirectly promote prescription-only medicines in breach of federal law. Between 2022 and 2024 they requested the removal of thousands of unlawful advertisements. In response to updated guidance from the Medical Board of Australia (MBA) restricting "tick-and-flick" prescribing, Eucalyptus Health said that its platforms would comply with requirements for real-time clinical consultation and enhanced verification. In July 2023, the TGA opened an investigation into whether email communications sent by Juniper to people on its contact list about the availability of Ozempic constituted unlawful advertising. Through 2024, the TGA proposed the removal of GLP-1 medicines from pharmacy compounding exemptions due to concerns that telehealth prescribing models were inconsistent with exemptions intended for individual patient use. They warned that compounded GLP-1 products were not subject to the same safety, quality, or adverse-event reporting requirements as TGA-approved medicines. Juniper was one of the companies prescribing them.
=== Books === Ben-Tal has also collaborated with Dr. Amit Kessel on research and teaching concerning structural biology and the origin of life. They co-authored Introduction to Proteins: Structure, Function, and Motion, first published in 2010, with a second edition published in 2018.
In late 2025, a former senior officer told the inquiry that British forces in Afghanistan executed suspects as well as unarmed civilians, including children, during operations and nothing was done despite widespread knowledge about the activities. On 1 December 2025, the officer, known as N1466, at the time the Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations in the UK Special Forces Headquarters, said that during a raid, SAS operatives shot at a mosquito net until there was no movement. He stated, "When the net was uncovered it was women and children. The incident was covered up and the individual who did the shooting was given some form of award to make it look legitimate." N1466 also confirmed that evidence supporting allegations of war crimes was not passed to military police. In May 2026, the inquiry published a summary of the account of a former chief of staff, known as N2252. The officer explained to the inquiry in 2024 that the reason for the lack of referral – breaching every British military officer's "legal obligation to alert military police if they become aware that someone under their command may have committed a war crime" – was because it was believed that an investigation could disrupt operations and damage morale. An additional factor was that some of the evidence had originated from a rival special forces regiment.
Boli or bole is the term used for roasted plantain in Nigeria. The plantain is usually grilled and served with roasted fish, ground peanuts and a hot palm oil sauce. It is a dish native to the Yoruba people of Western Nigeria. It is popular among the working class as an inexpensive midday meal. Plantain is popular in West and Central Africa, especially Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Bénin, Ghana and Nigeria; when ripe plantain is fried, it is generally called dodo ("dough-dough"). The ripe plantain is usually sliced diagonally for a large oval shape, then fried in oil to a golden brown color. The diagonal slice maximizes the surface area, allowing the plantain to cook evenly. Fried plantain can be eaten as such, or served with stew or sauce. In Ikire, a town in Osun State in southwestern Nigeria, there is a special way of preparing fried plantain known as Dodo Ikire. This variation of Dodo (Fried Plantain) is made from overripe plantain, chopped into small pieces, sprinkled with chili pepper and then fried in boiling point palm oil until the pieces turn blackish. The fried plantains are then stuffed carefully into a plastic funnel and then pressed using a wooden pestle to compress and acquire a conical shape when removed. In Ghana, the dish is called kelewele and can be found as a snack sold by street vendors. Though sweeter and spicier variations exist, kelewele is often flavored with nutmeg, chili powder, ginger and salt.
Another area he developed was porpos polymers from high internal phase emulsions (PolyHIPEs), particularly as applied to solid phase peptide synthesis. Sherrington returned to Strathclyde in 1987 as a full professor and later the head of the organic chemistry section. His reputation grew and he was to hold visiting chairs in 10 universities around the world. He was awarded a DSc by his alma mater, and elected a Fellow of the Royal Societies of Edinburgh and London. In their memoir of Sherrington Randal W. Richards and Philip Hodge note, that “It is very evident that David Sherrington made a major and unique impact on polymer science by enthusiastically bringing the rigour of physical chemistry to a new and rapidly expanding area of the subject and by being keen to collaborate with experts in other Disciplines”. David Colin Carrington suffered from pain in his lower back for many years, and was finally diagnosed in April 2012 as having multiple system atrophy (MSA). He had two major attacks of pneumonia in 2014 and died on 4 October, survived by Val. They had no children. Val has continued to raise awareness of MSA.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
All muscles are derived from paraxial mesoderm. During embryonic development in the process of somitogenesis the paraxial mesoderm is divided along the embryo's length to form somites, corresponding to the segmentation of the body most obviously seen in the vertebral column. Each somite has three divisions, sclerotome (which forms vertebrae), dermatome (which forms skin), and myotome (which forms muscle). The myotome is divided into two sections, the epimere and hypomere, which form epaxial and hypaxial muscles, respectively. The only epaxial muscles in humans are the erector spinae and small vertebral muscles, and are innervated by the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves. All other muscles, including those of the limbs are hypaxial, and innervated by the ventral rami of the spinal nerves. During development, myoblasts (muscle progenitor cells) either remain in the somite to form muscles associated with the vertebral column or migrate out into the body to form all other muscles. Myoblast migration is preceded by the formation of connective tissue frameworks, usually formed from the somatic lateral plate mesoderm. Myoblasts follow chemical signals to the appropriate locations, where they fuse into elongated multinucleated skeletal muscle cells. Between the tenth and the eighteenth weeks of gestation, all muscle cells have fast myosin heavy chains; two myotube types become distinguished in the developing fetus – one expressing fast chains, and the other expressing fast and slow chains. Between 10 and 40 per cent of the fibers express the slow myosin chain.
On February 26, the FDA warned a California manufacturer of a kratom product called "Mitrasafe" that the supplement was not confirmed as safe, was not approved as a dietary supplement or drug, and was illegal for interstate commerce. Although it was a federally legal dietary supplement, kratom was not approved as a therapeutic agent in the United States due to the poor quality of the research. In November 2017, the FDA cited serious concerns over the marketing and effects (including death) associated with the use of kratom in the United States, stating that "There is no reliable evidence to support the use of kratom as a treatment for opioid use disorder; there are currently no FDA-approved therapeutic uses of kratom... and the FDA has evidence to show that there are significant safety issues associated with its use."
== Structure == Although no crystallographic x-ray diffraction analyses have been published that depict the entire structure of ADAM10, one domain has been studied using this technique. The disintegrin and cysteine-rich domain (shown to the right) plays an essential role in regulation of protease activity in vivo. Recent experimental evidence suggests that this region, which is distinct from the active site, may be responsible for substrate specificity of the enzyme. It is proposed that this domain binds to particular regions of the enzyme's substrate, allowing peptide bond hydrolysis to occur in well defined locations on certain substrate proteins. The proposed active site of ADAM10 has been identified by sequence analysis, and is identical to enzymes in the Snake Venom metalloprotein domain family. The consensus sequence for catalytically active ADAM proteins is HEXGHNLGXXHD. Structural analysis of ADAM17, which has the same active site sequence as ADAM10, suggests that the three histidines in this sequence bind a Zn2+ atom, and that the glutamate is the catalytic residue.
=== Software === Dionex developed the Chromeleon brand of chromatography software. The primary function of Chromeleon is to control and obtain data from analytical instruments, such as GC, LC, IEX and MS. Chromeleon is fully Title 21 CFR Part 11 compliant. Chromeleon 7.3 is the latest edition of the software.
=== Safety issues for certain target groups === Like all protein-rich foods, spirulina contains the essential amino acid phenylalanine (2.6–4.1 g/100 g), which should be avoided by people who have phenylketonuria, a rare genetic disorder that prevents the body from metabolizing phenylalanine. Microcystins have various potential toxicity, especially to children and pregnant women, including liver damage, shock, and death. In 2024, a literature review on the allergic properties of spirulina was published. It was noted that to date (by July 2023), there have been 5 cases of allergy to spirulina, with 4 out of 5 cases resulting in anaphylaxis according to the classification from the World Allergy Organization's Anaphylaxis Guidance of 2020. Based on their research findings, instances of spirulina allergy are infrequently reported or identified.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The ability of a drug or other substance to be absorbed and used by the body. Orally bioavailable means that a drug or other substance that is taken by mouth can be absorbed and used by the body. (NCI) Bioinformatics
=== September 2005 === In a report published by Human Rights Watch in September 2005, U.S. Troops are accused to routinely torture prisoners in Iraq. Two sergeants and a captain describe e.g. the breaking of a detainee’s leg, and applying chemical substances to detainees’ skin and eyes. Capt. Ian Fishback of the 82nd Airborne who made persistent efforts over 17 months to raise concerns about detainee abuse with his chain of command was consistently told to ignore abuses and to “consider your career.” When he made an appointment with Senate staff members of Senators John McCain and John Warner, he says his commanding officer denied him a pass to leave his base.
== Treatment == Management of chronic granulomatous disease revolves around two goals: 1) diagnose the disease early so that antibiotic prophylaxis can be given to keep an infection from occurring, and 2) educate the patient about his or her condition so that prompt treatment can be given if an infection occurs.
=== Brand names === Estradiol cypionate has been marketed under the brand names Cicloestradiolo, D-Est, depGynogen, Depo-Estradiol, Depoestra, Depofemin, Depogen, Dura-Estrin, E-Cypionate, E-Ionate, Estradep, Estro-Cyp, Estrofem, Estroject, Estromed-PA, Estronol, Femovirin, Neoginon Depositum, Oestradiol-Retard, Pertradiol, Spendepiol, and T-E Cypionate, among others.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Dry powder is normally held at -20 °C or lower, away from light and moisture. Sealed vials can also be kept at 2-8 °C for shorter intervals. Warming to room temperature before opening prevents condensation.
In solution, hydrolysis of peptide bonds and oxidation of the methionine residue are the principal concerns. Oxidation converts methionine to its sulfoxide form, shifting the mass by sixteen daltons. Both processes are slowed by cold storage and by avoiding alkaline conditions.
A certificate documents what the supplier measured on a specific lot, not how a laboratory will use the material. Independent verification of identity and purity is common practice. Acceptance criteria should be defined before a batch is ordered.
It is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide built from the ACTH(4-7) sequence plus a Pro-Gly-Pro tail. It belongs to the family of short ACTH fragments studied for nervous-system effects. Its backbone contains only standard amino acids.