Everything below concerns Electrospray ionization. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2026-07-23. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Identity and purity of Semax are established mainly by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The chromatographic trace gives a purity estimate as a percentage of total peak area, while electrospray or matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization confirms the molecular mass against the calculated value. Amino acid analysis and sequence-specific fragmentation provide further confirmation when a supplier's chain of custody is unclear. Vendors frequently quote a purity figure without stating the detection wavelength or the integration method, which limits how far one number can be compared with another.
Stability depends heavily on physical state. Lyophilized powder held dry, cold and dark retains its content over long periods, whereas dissolved peptide begins to change within days at room temperature. The most cited degradation route is oxidation of the methionine residue, which converts the peptide to a sulfoxide form that elutes differently on chromatography. Hydrolysis of amide bonds and adsorption onto container walls contribute smaller losses. Buffers that exclude oxygen from the headspace slow the oxidation pathway, but no single condition prevents all change indefinitely.
Practical handling follows from those properties. Bulk material is best divided into single-use portions soon after receipt, because each thaw exposes the whole container to moisture and temperature cycling. Vials should be allowed to reach room temperature before opening to prevent condensation on the powder. Low-binding plasticware reduces loss of dilute solutions, and sterile filtration is used when a preparation must remain free of microbial growth. Records of batch number, reconstitution date and storage history are what allow a later analytical result to be interpreted meaningfully.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Typical purity specification | ≥ 95 % of peak area by HPLC | Some suppliers quote 98 % or higher |
| Identity confirmation | Mass spectrometry (electrospray or MALDI) | Observed mass is compared with the calculated mass |
| Common analytical method | Reversed-phase HPLC on a C18 column | Acetonitrile and water gradients with trifluoroacetic acid |
| Primary degradation route | Oxidation of the methionine residue | Yields a sulfoxide that separates cleanly on chromatography |
| Storage of dissolved material | Aliquoted and frozen at −20 °C or below | Single-use aliquots avoid repeated temperature cycling |
Once dissolved, the peptide is considerably less stable than the solid. Aqueous solutions are usually prepared at neutral to slightly acidic pH, filtered, and divided into single-use aliquots before freezing. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are a common cause of avoidable loss and are best prevented by never refreezing a thawed aliquot. Adsorption to plastic and glass surfaces can lower the measured concentration of dilute solutions, particularly below roughly 0.1 mg/mL. Buffer choice, salt content, and container material all influence how much peptide remains detectable after storage.
Identity and purity are established with standard peptide methods. Reversed-phase HPLC with ultraviolet detection near 214 nm resolves the parent peak from deletion and truncation byproducts, and reports typically quote a main-peak percentage. Mass spectrometry by electrospray or MALDI-TOF confirms the expected molecular mass, while amino acid analysis or peptide mapping can verify composition when the sequence itself is in question. A certificate of analysis that pairs a chromatogram with a mass spectrum is more informative than a purity figure alone. Counter-ion content and residual solvents are separate specifications and are frequently omitted.
Pharmacological accounts link semax to melanocortin signalling and to modulation of neurotrophic factor expression, particularly brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor. Much of this evidence comes from rodent studies using intranasal delivery, a route chosen because it allows peptides to reach the central nervous system with limited systemic exposure. Whether the same mechanisms operate in humans at comparable magnitude remains an open question. The precise receptor or receptors responsible for the reported behavioural and neuroprotective effects have not been conclusively identified.
Clinical reports describe use in ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack, optic nerve conditions, and cognitive complaints, but most of these studies are small and were conducted in a single region. Systematic reviews have generally described the evidence base as limited in size and variable in methodological quality. Randomised controlled data suitable for international regulatory assessment are scarce. As a result, major treatment guidelines outside Russia do not include the peptide, and interest in it remains largely research-driven rather than routine clinical.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It is described in the literature as an analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short N-terminal portion of adrenocorticotropic hormone that retains some neurotropic activity without the full hormonal effects of the parent peptide. The molecule carries a methionine residue at the N-terminus and two proline residues near the C-terminus, features that shape both its interactions with receptor systems and its chemical stability. The free peptide corresponds to the formula C37H51N9O10S and a molecular mass near 813.9 Da.
The mechanisms attributed to semax are inferred from animal and cell studies rather than traced to one confirmed target. The most frequently cited pathway involves increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal and cortical tissue. Some work points to engagement of melanocortin receptors, particularly MC4, which the parent ACTH fragment can activate. Effects on dopaminergic and serotonergic signalling have also been reported. No single account explains all observed results, and the relative weight of each pathway remains unsettled.
Published studies examine a fairly narrow set of endpoints. Rodent experiments commonly measure maze learning, infarct volume after induced ischemia, and tissue levels of neurotrophic factors. Clinical reports from Russian centres describe attention, memory and recovery scores in patients after stroke or transient ischemic attack. Most of those human studies are small and few have been repeated by independent groups. Outcome measures differ between studies, which limits direct comparison.
Circulation time for the peptide is short because peptidases cleave it readily. The Pro-Gly-Pro tail is thought to slow breakdown compared with the bare ACTH fragment, but the gain appears modest. Absorption after intranasal dosing is limited, and only a fraction of a dose is expected to reach the central nervous system. Laboratory concentrations therefore sit well above levels achieved systemically, a gap that complicates translation from bench findings to clinical claims.
=== COSMIC: Identification confidence === The COSMIC confidence score assigns a confidence to CSI:FingerID structure identifications. The idea is similar to False Discovery Rates: All molecules in a large dataset are analysed using CSI:FingerID, the top-ranked hit for each molecule will be evaluated by COSMIC and the most trustworthy identifications can be selected for further analysis. COSMIC does not re-rank structure candidates of a particular molecule nor does it discard any identifications. COSMIC employs a confidence score that combines E-value estimation and a linear support vector machine (SVM) with enforced directionality. Calibration of CSI:FingerID scores is achieved using E-value estimates. Generating decoys for small molecule structures is a non-trivial task, that is why candidates in PubChem serve as a proxy for decoys here. The score distribution is modeled as a mixture distribution of log-normal distributions, and the P-value and E-value of a hit score are estimated using the kernel density estimate of PubChem candidate scores. The SVM is employed to classify whether a hit is correct, utilizing features such as the calibrated score, score differences to other candidates, the total peak intensity explained by the fragmentation tree, and the cardinality of molecular fingerprints. Learning is constrained to a linear SVM to mitigate the risk of overfitting, and the directionality of features is enforced. This involves making upfront decisions about whether high or low values of a feature should enhance the confidence in an identification.
=== 20th century === The oldest United States–based think tank, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, was founded in Washington, D.C., in 1910 by philanthropist Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie charged trustees to use the fund to "hasten the abolition of international war, the foulest blot upon our civilization." The Brookings Institution was founded shortly thereafter in 1916 by Robert S. Brookings and was conceived as a bipartisan "research center modeled on academic institutions and focused on addressing the questions of the federal government." After 1945, the number of policy institutes increased, with many small new ones forming to address Cold War geopolitics and post-war reconstruction, aiming to express various issues and policy agendas. Until the 1940s, most think tanks were known only by the name of the institution. During the Second World War, think tanks were often referred to as "brain boxes". Before the 1950s, the phrase "think tank" did not refer to organizations. From its first appearances in the 1890s up to the 1950s, the phrase was most commonly used in American English to colloquially refer to the braincase or especially in a pejorative context to the human brain itself when commenting on an individual's failings (in the sense that something was wrong with that person's "think tank"). Around 1958, the first organization to be regularly described in published writings as "the Think Tank" (note the title case and the use of the definite article) was the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences.
==== Second operation ==== The seaming head then engages the second operation roller against the partly formed seam. The second operation presses all five steel components together tightly to form the final seal. The five layers in the final seam are then called; a) End, b) Body Hook, c) Cover Hook, d) Body, e) Countersink. All sanitary cans require a filling medium within the seam because otherwise the metal-to-metal contact will not maintain a hermetic seal. In most cases, a rubberized compound is placed inside the end curl radius, forming the critical seal between the end and the body. Probably the most important innovation since the introduction of double seams is the welded side seam. Prior to the welded side seam, the can body was folded and/or soldered together, leaving a relatively thick side seam. The thick side seam required that the side seam end juncture at the end curl to have more metal to curl around before closing in behind the Body Hook or flange, with a greater opportunity for error.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Afamelanotide, originally developed under the names "Melanotan", "Melanotan-1", or "Melanotan I" for skin tanning, a drug currently available for prescription for certain light related skin indications and also in trials in implant form as a prophylactic treatment for a series of light affected skin disorders and potential skin cancer preventative agent Melanotan II, a drug originally developed as a skin tanning agent, but subsequently investigated as a potential treatment for sexual dysfunction
=== Order broker === Order brokers are third-party agents that display arrangement and bouquet product images and then transfer orders to affiliated local florists for fulfillment and hand delivery. Order broker customers pay additional service fees as well as local delivery charges, which are generally included in the price displayed with each product. Orders are sent to local florists for fulfillment via a floral wire service. The advantage of this service is the consolidation of purchases for delivery to multiple locations through a single website. The disadvantage is the customer cannot see or pick the fulfilling florist. Most florists also offer order brokering services for national and international delivery.
=== Reinforced graphene === Graphene reinforced with embedded carbon nanotube reinforcing bars ("rebar") is easier to manipulate, while improving the electrical and mechanical qualities of both materials. Functionalized single- or multi-walled carbon nanotubes are spin-coated on copper foils and then heated and cooled, using the nanotubes themselves as the carbon source. Under heating, the functional carbon groups decompose into graphene, while the nanotubes partially split and form in-plane covalent bonds with the graphene, adding strength. π–π stacking domains add more strength. The nanotubes can overlap, making the material a better conductor than standard CVD-grown graphene. The nanotubes effectively bridge the grain boundaries found in conventional graphene. The technique eliminates the traces of substrate on which later-separated sheets were deposited using epitaxy. Stacks of a few layers have been proposed as a cost-effective and physically flexible replacement for indium tin oxide (ITO) used in displays and photovoltaic cells.
== External links == MedlinePlus Encyclopedia: C-reactive protein Inflammation, Heart Disease and Stroke: The Role of C-Reactive Protein (American Heart Association) C-Reactive+Protein at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) CRP: analyte monograph - The Association for Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine George Vrousgos, N.D. - Southern Cross University Archived 2020-02-18 at the Wayback Machine Human CRP genome location and CRP gene details page in the UCSC Genome Browser. Overview of all the structural information available in the PDB for UniProt: P02741 (C-reactive protein) at the PDBe-KB.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Main Campus == Main campus is in Anjanthali village in Nilokheri tehsil of Karnal after 97 acres land of HAU's Regional Research Station was transferred to the Horticulture university. University has "Regional Research Stations" at Ambala, Jind and Jhajjar.
=== Other work === In the initial years of his research, King focused on fundamental mechanisms of mass transfer between gases and liquids. This applied to separation processes such as absorption and distillation. Some of his other work dealt with systematic methods for synthesizing processes from component steps, such as sequencing multiple distillation columns and cascade refrigeration systems. King stopped chemical engineering research in 1999, part-way through his service as Provost and Sr. Vice President for the University of California, university-wide. When he returned in 2004 to be director of Berkeley's Center for Studies in Higher Education, he wrote a number of papers relating to university structure, function, and governance and then the book on the University of California.
In 1945 the Dutch royal family sent 100,000 tulip bulbs to Ottawa in gratitude for Canadians having sheltered the future Queen Juliana and her family for the preceding three years during the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands. In 1946 Juliana sent another 20,500 bulbs requesting that a display be created for the hospital, and promised to send 10,000 more bulbs each year. By 1963 the Canadian Tulip Festival featured more than 2 million tulips, rising to nearly 3 million by 1995. The Netherlands continues to send 20,000 bulbs to Canada each year (10,000 from the royal family and 10,000 from the Dutch Bulb Growers Association).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Suppliers normally quote a percentage of total chromatographic peak area, most often from reversed-phase HPLC. That figure says nothing about what the remaining percentage contains, and it depends on the detection wavelength used. A mass spectrometry result is a separate and stronger check on identity.
The methionine residue at the start of the chain is vulnerable to oxidation, producing a sulfoxide variant. Amide bonds can also hydrolyze, though more slowly under neutral conditions. Cold storage, oxygen exclusion and minimization of freeze-thaw cycles slow both processes but do not stop them.
A purity number on a certificate does not establish that a powder is the same product as a registered nasal medicine. Counter-ion content, residual solvents and peptide-related impurities may differ between the two. Independent verification is the only way to narrow that gap.
It originated at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the 1980s. The work was carried out by a Russian research group that specialized in peptide neuropharmacology.